Financial market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Financial market - Essay ExampleIn many economic set-ups or regional corporations that concord a central deposit, the main task of the bank is to ensure that each members rate has a considerable level of stability in the determine of basic commodities by reducing interest rates. Other tasks include the ability of the central bank to act as a central reserve for the currentness of the jurisdiction or country and to produce the legal tender used by the same country.Central banks perform several functions. They provide settlement serve to large-value payments, act as lenders for the last resort, play a component to oversee banks for the sake of pecuniary stability and monetary policy implementation. These jobs and their operations mode have repeatedly been redefined in order to decide on one specific financial and monetary crisis. In fact, all main stages in central bank functions shaping have been responses to financial and monetary crises.The Composition interpretation and the analysis of these crises are necessary to understand the functions that central banks need to implement and incarnate for a monetary economy to flourish. The origin of central banks as bankers banks was in 19th century England. Two conflicting theoretical conceptions of money, the banking principle and the currency principle, implied totally disparate roles of central banks.The central banks function is to put into effect convertibility of its bills into gold and to be flexible. Such flexibility is more consistent with the principle of banking, whereby money is a debt that financial intermediaries issue as the counterpart to their credit operations. Thus, it is the way of payments of debts issued by competing banks, payment between banks call for a superior bank to settle interbank transactions.This is mainly the role of the money given out by the central bank, money that is designed as legal tender for all debts. Nevertheless, the law cannot impose the trust of the economic agents in central bank money. It is

Hamlets Contradicting Traits Essay Example for Free

hamlets Contradicting Traits EssayWilliam Shakespeare created many complex characters in his play critical point. One of these complex characters being the protagonist, Prince small town. critical point has many contradictory traits, two of them being that settlement sometimes thinks rationally, and that being overcome by the command left by the spot of his belligerent father, King Hamlet, he tends to make unreasoning decisions. When Hamlet is premiere introduced to the ghosts commands in scene one, act 5, they begin to consume him with thoughts of vengeance, to murder Claudius, his fathers murderer. Throughout the play, Hamlet acts in such a way to provide evidence supporting both traits. Conflicted by these two opposing traits, Prince Hamlet has a war of two tactile propertys in his judgement, deciding which side is right. During the length of the play, Hamlet frequently argues with himself. Many of his soliloquies are debates among Hamlet and the warring side of his mind that believes he should listen to the despiteful propose of his fathers ghost. At the beginning of the play, Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark, is a rational scholar from Wittenberg.When he returns from Wittenberg, his mother, Queen Gertrude confronts him concerning his melancholy. He replies Seems, madam? Nay it is. I exist non seems (1. 2. 76) He is very straightforward with her and speaks in a sensible and rational manner. This conversation happened before Hamlet encountered the ghost therefor the militant and vengeful spirit has not yet influenced him.When Hamlet is preparing to rig the play to gage a reaction from Claudius to prove he is guilty of murdering his father, he is thinking rationally. Ill surrender these players/Play something like the murder of my father/Before mine uncle Ill observe his looks /Ill tent him to the quick if he but blench, /I know my course. (2. 2. 601-605) it takes and intelligent, sensible, and rational person to develop such a precise and f unctioning plan, therefor proving Hamlet is able to think rationally. Once Hamlet has met and been influenced to his fathers ghost, he becomes consumed with the thought of avenging his father. Hamlet is not a vehement person therefor the thought of murdering Claudius causes a lot of internal conflict for Hamlet.As Hamlet and Laertes fight in Ophelias grave, Hamlet says to Laertes For, though I am not splenitive and rash, /Yet subscribe I something in me dangerous, /Which let thy wiseness precaution (5. 1. 265-267). This quote proves that Hamlet is aware that though he is not generally a violent person, he now possesses something dangerous in him due to his utter fathers command. Later, Hamlet claims to Laertes that he is mad. Roughly awake, I here proclaim was madness. / Who does it, then? His madness ift be so, /Hamlet is of the faction that is wrongd /His madness is misfortunate Hamlets enemy (5. . 224-233) according to Hamlet it was not him who killed Polonius it was his mad ness. Again, Hamlet is aware that avenging his father has driven him to be something he is not, and to do irrational things such as murdering Polonius. Hamlet had stabbed Polonius through a curtain simply because there was a slight chance it would have been Claudius hiding. Before checking, he quickly stabbed Polonius, this is completely irrational and idle on Hamlets part. This dramatic turn of events caused negative repercussions towards Hamlet.By killing Polonius, Hamlet pushed Laertes to decide to avenge his own father and in the end, he murders Hamlet. The overwhelming urge to avenge his father caused Hamlet to act without thinking, putting Hamlet in a dangerous situation. Due to Hamlets powerfully contradicting traits, he frequently argues with himself, usually in his soliloquies. Hamlets monologue To be or not to be is a literal debate between scholarly, rational Hamlet and Prince Hamlet as the soldier-son, seeking revenge for his pugnacious father.In this soliloquy, Hamlet questions his motives and morals. To be, or not to be that is the question/Whether tis nobler in the mind to suffer/The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, /Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, /And by opposing end them? (3. 1. 56-60) he is debating with himself on whether or not it is value it to avenge his father. This way of making a decision is a rational and logical thought process in which Hamlet is evaluating all of his options and their repercussions. However, had Hamlet not had irrational thoughts to begin with, he would not have to go through with this process.Eventually Hamlets irrational urge to avenge his father consumes him. close of his rationality has vanished and all of his thoughts concern revenge, or are not fully thought through. In his My thoughts be bloody soliloquy, the irrational part of Hamlets divided soul is convincing him that if he does not avenge his father essentially he has no purpose What is a man,/If his chief good and grocery of his time /Be but to sleep and feed? a beast, no more (4. 4. 36-38) Hamlet says if he has no purpose, he is nothing. At the end of the soliloquy Hamlet decides My thoughts be bloody, or be nothing worth (4. 4. 68) this is him saying that if his thoughts are not concerning violent actions towards Claudius, they are worthless. These thoughts are completely irrational, and the benefits and downfalls of this decision have not been taken into consideration. Later when Hamlet is asked whether he would prefer to battle Laertes now, or give himself some time to prepare, he quickly responds that he get out fight him now, leading to Hamlets death. Again, Hamlet has irrationally made a decision without considering each side of the argument.The command left by the ghost of his father has completely overcome his mind leaving him not thinking logically or rationally as he was at the beginning of the play. Hamlet is an irrational rationalist. Before the ghost confronts him, Hamlet is a rational schol ar from Wittenberg, however afterwards, the ghosts vengeful thoughts consumes him, giving Hamlet an irrational and violent mindset. During the play, these two combative traits are warring in his mind, and expressed through soliloquies. Many of Hamlets soliloquies are debates between these two opposing traits.Eventually, the vengeful thoughts consume Hamlet and he becomes highly irrational. He does not plan or think anything through as he did at the beginning of the play. Hamlets irrationality is potentially the cause of his madness, and death. Had Hamlet not been so irrational whilst making decisions and allowing the vengeful thoughts left by his father to consume him, Claudius would not be seeking to murder him. Though Hamlet is genuinely a rationalist, his need to avenge his fathers death consumes him, causing him to make irrational and illogical decisions.

The Stages in the Process of Writing a Good Essay Essay Example for Free

The Stages in the Process of Writing a Good quiz EssayThe process should be done step by step alternately. Firstly, you have to think about the division and idea. indeed you must analyze and identify the topic that you have chosen, and you need to get some keywords. The next step is you have to look for the information about the topic. There are many ways to attempt it, such as book, journal, the internet, newspaper, library, and so on.Then, you analyze the data or arguments from those sources that you have got, and you need to take some notes. If all of information is completed, you must organize it and ingest unnecessary a plan about every step that you will write in the essay. Besides that, you need to make an outline for the essay as well. Then you can begin to write the essay. The important thing that you have to remember when you write the essay is you must be constant with the main idea and make your writing get fluent.So, you need to use linking words and must not forget to organize your paragraph. The paragraph consists of three parts, those are introduction, body, and conclusion. You must write it in the correct order. After finishing the essay, you have to read it again and check every paragraph about the fluency. You also need to check your grammar that you use. Finally, if you have canvass all of them and you feel satisfied with your essay, you need to submit it.

Global Climate Change Essay Essay Example for Free

Global Climate Change Essay EssayGlobal Climate diversify is a term used to delimit a gradual increase or change within the average temperature of populaces atmosphere and its oceans. Global clime change is a hike issue in todays society. There atomic number 18 various factors as to why the climate is changing the factors are both clement and natural. The human activities that apparent motion climate change are burning fossil fuels, driving cars, and deforestation. The human causes are widely discussed exclusively no ashes ever considers the natural causes. inhering causes that contribute to global climate change are animal and plant respiration, volcanic eruptions, and the melting of folderol caps. Although human activity is a main cause we still need to consider the natural causes because they are a huge factor when it comes to Global climate change.One natural effect of Global climate change is through animal and plant respiration. When a plant or an animal dies th eir bodies will decay into the ground. Once their bodies decay all of the C02 that was in their body is released into the atmosphere and the ground. The plants and animals that are buried deep underground will become fossil fuels millions of years later. Which is another leading cause of global climate change when humans burn them. All the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from the death of an animal or plant causes climate change. Carbon dioxide is a green house gas, which is a gas that traps heat into the atmosphere. Green house gases are essential for human, animal, and plant life but the amount that we have on earth is negatively touch on our climate. The earth hasnt held this much carbon for 420,000 years.Another natural effect of global climate change is through volcanic eruptions. When a volcano erupts it releases aerosols, which are a cooling agent for earth. But the volcanoes also release carbon dioxide a green house gas. This may seem like its not a problem beca use the cooling will keep theheating in balance. But thats not always the case, the cooling agent can desert our atmosphere and go into different layers of the earth. The further it goes into the layers determines how long it will take for the cooling to effect our atmosphere. For example, if the aerosols reach the stratosphere it can take years until it is released back onto the earth. plot the release of co2 is an immediate effect because its trapped in the atmosphere. at a lower place in image one, there is a graph that shows the affect a volcano has on the earth. As you can see in 1975 onward the volcano erupted earths temperature was significantly lower. But in the 1980s before it fully erupted earths temperature was rising, due to co2 being released. But once the volcano fully erupted in 1991 temperatures have not been below the +.01 mark, but they are still dropping and rising. This up and down effect of the temperature has caused cold temperatures, which lead to crop fail ures, which in return lead to extreme famine in the North American region.The last natural cause of global climate change that I will be discussing is the melting of ice caps. The melting of ice and black eye seems like good social occasion because water is being absorbed back into our atmosphere, but in reality it isnt a good thing at all. When the sun hits a bright surface, like snow it goes through a albedo process. The albedo of the snow causes 95% of the suns energy to be reflected. Below in image 2 it shows exactly how this process works. First the suns rays are reflected on to a surface to be reflected back into the space. But with all the snow melting the suns rays are being absorbed into the atmosphere causing the earth to heat up more.Before I fully researched global, I thought it was an compositors case that was strictly caused by humans. But from the information that was provided you can see that that isnt the case at all. Natural causes of global climate change affec t the earth in a very significant way. Although the human causes of global climate change do outweigh the natural causes some scientist believe that this is just a natural cooling and warming event that goes through.

Quality management systems

timberland worry systemsINTRODUCTIONThis chapter reviews and peruses various calibre government systems (QMS) and divergent literature work in the argona of research. It will try to inquire into the view points and thoughts of scholars and academicians in relation to the field of study. It will in any case give an overview of culture Systems (IS). tonus and QMS DefinedQuality is defined by ISO 9000 series as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils requirements. In other words, tone of voice weed be regarded as fitness for purpose or conformance to users expectations since the user determines whether a product is of the desired look. (Ghana Standards Board, International Trade Centre, P 109) The caliber of goods and services results from numerous interrelated activities. These activities need to be coordinated by dint of a Quality Management System. As indicated by John Ruskin, Quality is never an accident it is of every(prenominal) time the resu lt of intelligent effort. In society to survive in todays competitive marketplace, an organization has to consistently satisfy its guests needs and anticipate their future needs. This can be happen upond by providing customers with the products they want, getting it right first time, without the need for rework. To satisfy customers, one must go higher along the production chain, right up to the suppliers not forgetting employee morale and commitment. Suppliers provide the raw materials or products for further dish outing by employees if suppliers and employees do what is expected of them, getting it right first time, customers will be satisfied. As defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) TQM is a management approach for an organization, centered on quality, based on the secernicipation of either its members and aiming at semipermanent success through customer satis occurrenceion, and benefits to all members of the organization and to society. (ISO 84021994) A quality management system in the enterprise, based on legal profession rather than cure, minimizes waste and rework by ensuring that products atomic number 18 made right first time and every time. In adopting a pr regular(a)tive approach by investing in plants and equipment, training staff and purchasing the appropriate raw materials/inputs, an organization can reduce inspection cost and more specifically, the costs of in addition-ran and/or delays. These costs arise from rework or discarding non-conforming in- surgical process material and finished products. Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Management (QM) ModelsThe publication of the ISO 9000 series of standards in 1987 heightened cognisance of the benefits of QA requirements among SMEs, more of which implemented ISO 9000 QA amazes to improve their competitive position as well as to join the ranks of suppliers to banging companies. magical spell twain the 1987 and 1994 versions of ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and IS O 9003 were based on a QA model, the revised standard (ISO 9001) published in 2000 is based on QM principles (Ghana Standards Board, Export quality management, 2009) The broad relationships mingled with inspection, quality control, quality assurance and quality management are summarized in the table below. System ObjectiveActivitiesApplicabilityNatureInspection growth conformance by screening out conforming products from nonconformist productsVisual checks/ measuring then testing and reporting the results.Generally, Production-related activities, such as checking incoming goods, in-process or final product, pre-dispatch, etcDetection after the event.Quality controlProduct Conformance by Eliminating causes of nonconforming productsInspection followed by appraisal of results and feedback to the process macrocosm controlledAs aboveDetection and-or off-line correction.Quality assuranceGenerating impudence in product conformanceComprises all QC activities, plus documented quality sys tems and quality auditsAll unravels of the company from design to after-sales service.Prevention.Quality ManagementContinual profit of product conformanceContinual improvement of processes in addition to all QA activitiesAs abovePrevention and improvement.What are the ISO 9000 series of Standards The ISO 9000 series consist of quartet primary standards patronizeed by several other documents. The four primary standards areISO 9000, Quality management systems Fundamentals and vocabularyISO 9001, Quality management systems RequirementsISO 9004, Quality management systems Guidelines for performance improvementsISO 19011, Guidelines on quality and/or environmental management auditing.ISO 9000 is a starting point for understanding the standard, as it defines the fundamental terms utilise in the ISO 9000 family or set of standards for quality management. ISO 9001 specifies the requirements for quality management systems which enable you to demonstrate your ability to provide produc ts that fulfil customer and applicable regulatory requirements it also aims to enhance customer satisfaction. ISO 9004 provides you with guidance on the relentless improvement of your quality management system so that the needs and expectations of all interest parties are met. These interested parties include customers and finish-users, directors and staff in the organisation, owners and investors, suppliers and partners, and society at large. ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 are consistent pair of standards that relate modern quality management to processes and activities of an organization, and emphasize the promotion of continual improvement and the achievement of customer satisfaction. ISO 9001, which focuses on the effectiveness of the quality management system in meeting customer requirements, is used for certification or for contractual agreements between suppliers and buyers. By contrast, ISO 9004 cannot be used for certification as it does not prescribe requirements but provides g uidance for the continual improvement of an organisations performance. ISO 9001 focuses on effectiveness, i.e. doing the right function in the right way. The ISO 9000 quality management system is generic in temperament it is applicable to both the manufacturing and services sectors, and to enterprises of all sizes, including the single entrepreneur. ISO 9001 specifies what an enterprise is demand to do, but it does not indicate how this is to be done thus giving the enterprise much flexibility in running its business. (Crosby, 1992)Worldwide use of ISO 9000The ISO 9000 standards are widely used around the world. A survey conducted by ISO indicated that at least 4008,631 ISO certificates were awarded in 158 countries in 2000, up by 64, 988 certificates over the figure for devastation of December 1999, when the total stood at 343,643 for 150 countries. The figures were also significantly higher than the 27,816 certificates issued in 48 countries by 31st January 1993, when the sur vey was first conducted. The number of certificates issued in Europe in 2000 was 220,127 or 53% of the total. The Far East had 20.05%, North America 11.82%, New Zealand and Australia 6.68%, Africa and West Asia 4.94%, and Central and South America 2.64%. Information on the sector covered by the certificates at the end of 2000 was obtained for 317,126 certificates. The highest number recorded was for basic metal products (40,713 certificates or 12.84% of the total), and the smallest number for nuclear fuel (115, 0.03%) The figures for various other sectors are as follows electrical and optical equipment, 38,148 (12.0%) sustenance products, beverages and tobacco, 11,440 (3.6%) discipline technology, 11,067 (3.5%) textiles and textile products, 5, 178 (1.6%) and hotels and restaurants, 1,187 (0.4%) Is quality management an issue only for management?A glance at the definition of quality Management-coordinated activities to direct and control an organisation with regard to quality giv es an impression that it is an issue for management only. This impression is reinforced by the fact that the eight quality management principles that form the basis of the ISO 9000 series are all used by senior management as a modelling for guiding the organisation towards improved performance. The eight management principles arePrinciple 1 Customer focusPrinciple 2 Leadership,Principle 3 liaison of peoplePrinciple 4 Process approachPrinciple 5 System approachPrinciple 6 Continual improvement,Principle 7 real approach to decision-making, andPrinciple 8 Mutually beneficial supplier relationshipsHerbert Simon argued years ago that the core of managing lies in decision making, which is best thought of as process comprising three phasesFinding occasions for making decisions,Finding possible line of businesss of action, andChoosing among courses of actionLooking at the quality management principles again, but from Simons point of view, one finds that whatever of them provid e workers with ample scope for making decisions that influence quality. It would appear that the principles related to customer focus, leadership, system approach to management, and development of mutually beneficial supplier relationships are issues for management only. The other principles apply to employees at all levels in the organisation. Employees accept ownership of problems and their responsibility for solving them. The process approach is applicable to everyone, each soul having a triple role (i.e. everyone in an organisation is seen as a customer, processor and a supplier). Continual improvement is within the reach of employees at all levels as they can be trained in the methods of continual improvement and the tools involve. Everyone can base his or her decision on accurate and reliable entropy, this being made available wherever decisions have to be taken. If everyone looks at quality management as managing of quality, then quality management is within the decision-ma king scope of both managers and workers. thither is a Japanese rule that attributes quality problems to poor product design (40%), errors made during the manufacturing process (30%), and nonconforming materials purchased from suppliers (30%). Generally design and purchasing problems can be solved only through managerial intervention. One can say that quality problems in manufacturing are caused in equal proportion by managers (e.g. inadequate training of workers) and workers (e.g. inadequate attention to machine setting). One can conclude that 85% of the problems come under management control and 15% are under worker control. This ratio of 8515 has been substantially documented in the literature of quality management. Only 15% of defective products can be attributed to production operators while the other 85% are caused by management. System problems like inadequate maintenance of equipment and faulty raw materials/components can be pertinacious only by top management. Quality mana gement is regarded in ISO 9000 as comprising four elementsQuality planning,Quality control,Quality assurance andQuality improvementWhile all four elements are within the purview of management, workers are directly responsible for quality control conducted at the operable level. It should be noted that workers could also contribute to quality improvement if they have been trained in simple problem-solving techniques.FOOD SAFETY QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMFood safety is related to the presence of food-borne hazards in food at the point of consumption, (intake by the consumer). As the introduction of food safety hazards can occur at any defend of the food chain, adequate control throughout the food chain is essential. Thus food safety is ensured through the combined efforts of all the parties participating in the food chain. The following are generally recognised key elements to ensure food safety along the food chain, up to the point of final consumption synergistic communicationSyste m ManagementPrerequisite programmes HACCP principles parley along the food chain is essential to ensure that all relevant food safety hazards are identified and adequately controlled at each step within the food chain. This implies communication between organizations both upstream and downstream in the food chain. Communication with customers and suppliers about identified hazards and control measures will assist in clarifying customer and supplier requirements (e.g. with regard to the feasibility and need for these requirements and their impact on the end product). Recognition of the organisations role and position within the food chain is essential to ensure effective interactive communication throughout the chain in read to deliver safe food products to the final consumer. The most effective food safety systems are established, operated and updated within the framework of a structured system and co-ordinated into the overall management activities of the organization. This prov ides maximum benefit for the organisation and interested parties. ISO 220002005 has been aligned ISO 9001 in order to enhance the compatibility of the two standards. ISO 22000 integrates the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical mince Point (HACCP) system and application steps developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. By means of auditable requirements, it combines the HACCP plan with prerequisite programmes (PRPs). Hazard analysis is the key to an effective food safety management, since conducting a hazard analysis assists in organising the familiarity required to establish an effective combination of control assist in organising the knowledge required to establish an effective combination of control measures. ISO 22000 requires that all hazards that may be reasonably expected to occur in the food chain, including hazards that may be associated with the lawsuit of process and facilities used, are identified and assessed. Thus it provides the means to determine and document why certain identified hazards need to be controlled by a particular organisation and why others need not. BUSINESS PROCESSES AND learning SYSTEMSIn order to operate, businesses must deal with many different pieces of information about suppliers, customers, employees, invoices and payments, and of course product and services. They must organise work activities that use this information systems to operate efficiently and enhance the overall performance of the firm. Information systems make it possible for firms to manage all their information, make better decisions and improve the execution of their business processes. (Laudon and laudon 2006).BUSINESS PROCESSESInformation systems are all about improving business processes which lie at the very heart of a business. So it is important to understand what is meant by business processes occupancy processes, refer to the manner in which work is organised, coordinated, and focused to put forward a valuable product or service. Business processes are workflows of materials, information, and knowledge-set of activities. Business processes also refers to the unique ways in which organisations coordinate work, information and knowledge, and the ways in which management chooses to coordinate work. Every business can be seen as a collection of business processes. Some of these processes are part of larger embrace processes. For example, almost every business has a way to hire employees. The process of hiring employees is a business process in the sense that it is a set of activities that a firm uses to hire new employees. To a large extent the performance of a business firm depends on how well its business processes are intentional and coordinated. A companys business processes can be a source of competitive strength if they enable the company to innovate or to execute better than its rivals. Business processes can also be liabilities if they are based on outdated ways of working that impede organisational res ponsiveness and efficiency. Information systems enhance business processes principally in two ways Increasing the efficiency of existing processes and Enabling entirely new processes that are capable of transforming the business TYPES OF BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEMSThere are different systems depending on the different business processes but all the systems could be viewed from two different perspectives a functional perspective identifying systems by their major business function, and a constituency perspective that identifies systems in terms of the major organisational groups that they serve.Systems from a functional perspectiveFrom a historical perspective, functional systems were the first kinds of systems developed by business firms. These systems were located in specific departments, such as accounting, marketing and sales, production, and human resources. There are four main types of information systems that serve different functional systems Sales and marketing informatio n systems help the firm with marketing business processes (identifying customers for the firms products or services, developing products and services to meet their needs, promoting products and services) and sales processes (selling the products and services, taking orders, contacting customers, and providing customer support).Manufacturing and production information systems deal with the planning, development, and production of products and services, and controlling the flow of production.Finance and accounting information systems keep track of the firms monetary assets and fund flows. The typical finance and accounting information systems found in large organizations. Senior management uses finance and accounting systems to establish long-term investment goals for the firms and to provide long-range forecasts of the firms financial performance. Middle management uses systems to oversee and control the firms financial resources. practicable management uses finance and accounting systems to track the flow of funds in the firm through transactions, such as paychecks, payments to vendors, securities reports, and receipts.Human resources information systems maintain employee records, track employee skills, job performance and training, and support planning for employee compensation and career development. The system can turn a variety of reports, such as list of newly hired employees, employees who are terminated or on leaves of absence, employees classified by job type or educational level, or employee job performance evaluations.Systems from a Constituency Perspective This is a perspective that examines systems in terms of the various levels of management and types of decision that they support. each of these levels has different information needs given their different responsibilities, and each can be seen as major information constituents. Senior managers need summary information that can quickly inform them about the overall performance of the firm. Middl e managers need more specific information on the results of specific functional areas and departments of the firm. Operational managers need transactional-level information, such as number of parts in inventory each day. Knowledge workers may need access to external scientific databases or internal databases with organisational knowledge. Production or service workers may need access to information from production machines, and service workers may need access to customer records in order to take orders and answer questions from customers. There are four main categories of systems from a constituency perspective. Transaction processing systems (TPS) are basic business systems that serve the operational level of the organization by recording the daily routine transactions required to conduct business, such as payroll and sales receipts. Management information systems (MIS) serve middle managers interests by providing current and historical performance information to aid in planning, c ontrolling, and decision making at the management level. MIS typically iron out TPS data to present regular reports on the companys basic operations. Decision Support Systems (DSS), or business intelligence systems, help managers with non-routine decisions that are unique, rapidly changing, and not well specified in advance. DSS are more analytical than MIS, using a variety of models to analyze internal and external data or condense large amounts of data for analysis. Executive support systems (ESS) provide a generalized computing and communications environment that help senior managers address strategic issues and identify long-term trends in the firm and its environment. ESS addresses non-routine decisions requiring judgment, evaluation, and insight because there is no agreed-on procedure for arriving at a solution. ESS present graphs and data from many internal and external sources through an porthole that is easy for senior managers to use. Often the information is delivered to senior executives through a portal, which uses a Web interface to present integrated personalized business content.INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND TQM The importance of information technologies and the information systems function is no longer of debate among business people. The question, rather, is how an organization can take best advantage of IT in order to support its operations, add value to its products and services, and gain a competitive edge in the marketplace. To be able to perform up to such high expectations, the IS function must develop an intimate understanding of the expectations of its varied clientele. As organizations embark on their journey to be more responsive to their customers and to continuously improve the quality of their products and services, IS must do the same. Unfortunately, it seems that despite the importance of IT to the success of most organizations, the function is not proactive when it comes to actively pursuing and implementing quality principles. Surveys of IS managers found that a minority of IS managers (41%) understood the basic principles of Total Quality Management (TQM), and thought they will beuseful to the IS function. Even in the cases where TQM principles were understood, they often were not implemented in the IS function. Total IS quality is a multidimensional concept. (Antonis C. Stylianou and Ram L. Kumar, September 2000)Dimensions Of Information Systems QualityInfrastructure Quality The quality of the infrastructure (hardware and enabling packet) that is fielded and maintained by ISincludes, for example, the quality of the networks, and systems software. packet Quality The quality of the applications software built, or maintained, or supported by IS. Data Quality The quality of the data entering the various information systems. Information Quality The quality of the output resulting from the information systems. In many cases, the output of one system becomes the input of another. In that respect, informatio n quality is related to data quality. Administrative Quality The quality of the management of the IS functionIncludes the quality of budgeting, planning, and scheduling. Service Quality The quality of the service component ofthe IS functionincludes the quality of customer support processes such as those related to a help desk. These dimensions overlap considerably, and what impacts one dimension will in many cases impact other dimensions as well. For example, a decline in infrastructure quality (for example, persistent network service interruptions) is likely to cause real or perceived problems with data and service quality. And even though in the eyes of some IS customers the distinction may be insignificant, it is nevertheless important in being able to respond appropriately. An appropriate reaction may include actions to address infrastructure quality (such as replacing a defective network component), data quality (such as more ordinary backups), and service quality (such as im proved communication on cause and resolution of the problem). So far, research on IS quality has addressed individual components of quality and not the big picture. Pearson et al.s framework for introducing TQM into the IS function, although broad, does not provide an integrated and detailed enough perspective for managing quality in key processes and products. Also, Pitt et al. present a model of IS success that is broad but incomplete. That model does not capture the variety of stakeholders affected, the interaction between IS and business processes, the administrative component of IS quality, and environmental influences on quality. An great literature exists on data and information quality, and software quality. Administrative IS quality, although it has not received as much attention on its own, is very similar to the quality of other management processes examined in the general concept. INFLUENCES ON INFORMATION SYSTEM QUALITYWhile IS quality is a general concept, there may be significant differences between organizations in terms of how quality is defined. Different organizations may emphasize different dimensions of IS quality. Environmental factors, such as industry type and the nature of competition, affect the importance of IS in the organization. Managing IS quality is more complicated in IT-intensive industries such as banking because of the large number of IS-supported processes and the high degree of integration between IS and business processes. The impact of organizational investments in IT on IS quality may vary depending on organizational factors such as culture, politics, and senior management support. Stakeholder perceptions of what constitutes satisfying quality may also vary depending on those factors. Departmental factors such as differences in leadership style, employee skills, and IT intensity also impact IS quality perceptions and management. These environmental, organizational, and departmental factors impact the relative importa nce of different stakeholder groups, the weights assigned by each stakeholder group to different quality attributes, and the metrics used to measure them. As a result, deciding how to configure and manage the IS quality program requires sensitivity to these factors. (Antonis C. Stylianou and Ram L. Kumar, September 2000)HOW INFORMATION SYSTEMS IMPROVE QUALITYReduce Cycle Time and modify the production ProcessStudies have shown that probably the best single way to reduce quality problems is to reduce cycle time, which refers to the total elapsed time from the start-off of a process to its end. Shorter cycle times mean that problems are caught earlier in the process, often before the production of a defective product is completed, parsimoniousness some of the hidden cost of producing it. Finding ways to reduce cycle time often means finding ways to simplify production steps. The few the steps in a process the less time and opportunity for an error to occur. Information systems hel p eliminate steps in a process and critical time delays. A company selling flowers by telephone or over the Web, used to be much smaller company that had difficultness retaining its customers. It had poor service, inconsistent quality, and a cumbersome manual order-taking process. Telephone representatives had to write each order, obtain credit card approval, determine which participating florist was at hand(predicate) to the delivery location, select a floral arrangement, and forward the order to the florist. Each step in the manual process increased the chance of human error, and the integral process took at least a half hour. A new information system that downloads orders taken in telecenters or over the Web to a central computer and electronically transmits them to local florists was installed. Orders are more accurate and arrive at the florist within two minutes BenchmarkCompanies achieve quality by using benchmarking to set strict standards for products, services, and other activities, and then measuring performance against those standards. Companies may use external industry standards, standards set by other companies internally developed high standards or some combination of the three. An outdoor clothing company used benchmarking to achieve an order-shipping accuracy of 99.9 percent. Its old chew order fulfillment system could not handle the surging volume and variety of items to be shipped. After studying Germans and Scandinavian companies with leading edge order fulfillment, the company redesigned its order fulfillment process and information systems so that orders could be processed as soon as they were received and shipped within 24 hours. wasting disease Customer Demands to improve Products and ServicesImproving customer service, making customer service the number one priority, will improve the quality of the product itself. mitigate Design Quality and PrecisionComputer aided design (CAD) software has made a major contribution to quality imp rovements in many companies, from producers of locomote to producers of razor blades. A computer-aided design (CAD) system automates the creation and revision of designs, using computers and sophisticated graphics software.Improve Production Precision and Tighten Production TolerancesFor many products, quality can be enhanced by making the production process more precise, thereby decreasing the amount of variation from one part to another. CAD software often produces design specifications for tooling and manufacturing processes, saving additional time and money while producing a manufacturing process with far fewer problems. The user of this software is able to design a more precise production system, a system with tighter tolerances, than could ever be done manually. IMPLEMENTING AND MANAGING INFORMATION SYSTEM QUALITYIn instituting an Information System quality program, lessons could and should be drawn from both successes and failures in quality programs implem

Are Humans Naturally Violent?

Are Humans Naturally Violent?Its evident that most gentlemans gentleman beings think that war can neer be avoided and for these reason m all of the societal ideas make water been based on the concept that violence is part of gentleman nature. Human social, scientific thinking, religious and political ideas ar basically based on idea that every person is born a killer. Violence is lots in us that its r bely questioned by the society and other people. As valet we tend to look for the cause of evil things or those that are considered to be vile for instance violence as we fail to look for the cause of the good things that are happening around us. Violence is thought to be caused by licking and this is best explained by the trespass theory. For these reason one of the many questions in the human minds is how violence became part of us (Senker and Gifford 8).Violence is one of the turgid things in our civilization. Smell of war and violence has left its victims confused intimate ly what they might have done to deserve such a harsh treatment. As those who caused the much affliction and pain to humanity defend themselves by saying that was all that they had to do we cant help it but wonder if violence is rightfully inborn in us. scorn the circumstance that violence is one of the best way that is applied by human to cover their inner emptiness and frustration it usually brings more harm than any good. For example those who have been victims of bombing and war are usually left with a scar that can never disappear or heal. Its very painful and difficult to loose your whole family in war and this are some of the daily happenings in our society (Kurtz and Turpin 100).Despite the controversies and argument surrounding these concept in that location are organizations which have come up with some evidence to dispel the concept of violence being perceive as innate human trait. For example UNESCO came up with a statement to oppose these belief and they further plan ned to incorporate their research into the student plan in order to mould the young people in the rightful way. Sigmund Freud manages that there is a spontaneous and natural aggression energy which is reserved at heart human race. And in order to avoid harmful deeds he recommends that one should do competitive sports more often in order for this energy to be removed. Freud argues that those who do not do exercise are more likely to indulge into violence as a way of removing the extra energy (Senker and Gifford 10). many another(prenominal) have regarded this model to be false since other behaviorist have indicated that the origin of violence is something which is external as opposed to internal stimulant. Some pricker external factors are thought to stimulate violent deeds and behavior. They support this fact by the aspect that many communities live quite well without any form of aggression and secondly he argues that there is no evidence to prove that there exists an in build pressure within people that makes them to guide violently. On the contrary if its true that there is energy that accumulates within us then we are not supposed to be aggressive as Aristotle indicates in his theory. Research that has been done indicate that people become violent by consistently watching or taking part in violent deeds. This is attributed to the fact that engagement in aggressive deeds enables one to react aggressively therefore if one has not accumulated violent scenes in his mind as a result of watching or practicing violent deeds they cannot become violent.Scientist concluded in 1986 that there is no scientific evidence to prove that aggression and violence is inborn. Despite the fact that it cannot be scientifically proven whether men are naturally violant the belief of the same is strongly held by our society. Some argue that animals are naturally violent and since we share the same ancestral line we cannot alienate ourselves from this truth. Our history has man y stories astir(predicate) war, and cruelty and at the same repoint the physiologist has indicated that our brains have some hormones that are related to aggression and for these reason biologically man is created violent. Its important for humans to draw a line between themselves and animals since human beings are very complex than animals. There are many aspects that are in humans which are absent in animals. For example humans have the ability to reason whereas animals are not in a position to critically reason (Kurtz and Turpin 57).In spite the fact that science informs us about our ancestry we should not limit our mind to the actions of animals. Lets not allow the animal behavior to yield our actions as a society. For these reason we should not allow our instincts to influence us the same way animals are influenced. When we are violent because our relatives which are animals are also violent then we are not using the fellowship that we were given as humans. On the other han d animal are not very violent as many think unless they equate inquisition to violence. Animals rare form aggression groups and if this actually happen it must be as a result of the circumstance animals found themselves in or because of the environment. Among the humans there is violate behavior but that does not give us the reason to belief that violence is innate. Therefore its important for us to realize that by the fact that something is universal done does not mean that its natural and innate. For instance, by the fact that several communities may be producing pottery is not an indication that there is a pottery gene in that community (Baumeister and Bushman 306).Therefore aggression is not a universal thing since there are some cultures which are dovish. For these reason humans are not born violent simply because not all people are violent. Its also true that men who are very primitive are not war like war like character has increased among the modern men. One can choose to be violent or imperturbable and a good example is Sweden which in the past years was a violent nation but at the moments its rated among peaceful industrialized nation. On addition violence and war has a lot to do with politics, personal interest as well as the social shot therefore this practice has little to do with nature.The fact that war is a dominant aspect of our history does not men that war is part of a humane nature. Therefore whether we believe that we are naturally violent or not its our decision. The belief is still rooted in our society and the many controversies about the same will still continue. Finally everyone has a responsibility to make a rightful decision. Therefore one can choose to be peaceful or violent because there is much knowledge that is bestowed upon humanity to make the rightful decision. Our bad choices and character should not be excused in the pick out of nature because them that succumb of this ill remain in a state of confusion as they keep wo ndering about the turn of things. Life is uncommon and peace is a wonderful experience that every sensible person may ever long for (Baumeister and Bushman 304).Work citedCath Senker and Clive Gifford. Violence on the Screen. New York, NY Evans Brothers, 2010.Roy Baumeister brad Bushman. Social Psychology and Human Nature. London,UK Cengage Learning, 2007.Kurtz Lester Jennifer Turpin. Encyclopedia of violence, peace conflict. New York, NY Academic Press, 1999.

Congestive Cardiac Failure: Causes and Effects

Congestive Cardiac Failure Causes and EffectsAnalyse Health Information Case studyThe scenario relates to Mr Alby Wright who has been admitted into your ward. His patient history and admission form is obtainable for you to refreshen.Mr Wrights admission states that he has meaning mishap (congestive cardiac failure). Clearly define shopping center failure. What organs and which frame system of ruless be affected by this disquiet?Congestive partiality failure is a condition where the inwardness muscle becomes less strong and is unable to pump as well as it commonly would. The ventricles which close to important pumping chambers become bigger or thicker and argonnt able to squeeze or relax as well as they should be able to. This nominates it easy for fluid retention to occur especially in the legs, abdomen and lungs (better health channel. 2013). This is all usually graveld by diabetes, coronary inwardness disease, precedent heart attack, high family bosom and or o ther conditions that switch damaged the heart and make it weak. Sometimes the fluid that puzzles in the lungs and it makes it uneasy to respire and comes shortness of breath when the person is lying blast on their back. This is called pulmonary oedema and git cause other respiratory issues if it not treated (Ameri can buoy heart association. 2012).Generally if someone was to conduct heart failure, it would occur on the left side starting line mostly but can occur in some(prenominal) sides. If someone is experiencing left side heart failure, the left ventricle doesnt fully empty and is unable to distribute enough oxygen rich rail line around the body which causes heightened pressure in the upper chambers of the heart and the veins that are close to the commonwealth which is called systolic failure.Because of the build-up of crosscurrent in there, it can cause oedema in the legs, lungs and abdominal organs. The kidneys are affected by this hinders the way that they work and it leads to salt and water retention which causes merely oedema. In some cases of heart failure, quite of not being able to pump root around properly out of the left ventricle there is also unsuccessful eternal sleep of the left ventricle because the muscle has gone stiff which leads to stock kitty-cating (better health channel. 2013) and also that the heart isnt able to fully fill with smear during the resting current among each heartbeat (American heart association. 2012).Right sided heart failure usually happens because of left sided failure. When the left ventricle has failed, more fluid pressure is therefore transfer tearing back through the lungs which damages the right side of the heart. When the right side of the heart loses the strength to properly pump, strain builds up in the veins and that causes swelling in the legs and ankles.The cardiovascular system is affected the most by congestive heart failure. The heart has been weakened and is unable to pump blood e fficiently and doesnt intention properly in general and the muscle is also weakened.The respiratory system is affected because of the fluid in the lungs which is also known as pulmonary oedema. This can affect your breathing and leave you short of breath. Fluid may also build up in the liver burdening in an imp demeanored capability to get rid of the bodys toxins and to produce the proteins that the body needs to live.The intestines can become not as good at suck ining nutrients and medicines as that would have when they were healthy (providence health network. 2014)Give a brief overview of the normal travel of the body systems affected by this disorder.Cardiovascular system is most affected by this disorder. The functions of this system are to basically keep the blood running and pumping through by the arteries, veins, and capillaries (cliffs notes. 2013). The blood carries important nutrients around the body and helps to remove metabolic waste. The heart, blood vessels and b lood help to regulate body temperature by determineling the blood flow to the surface of the skin. The white blood cells help to protect the body from conflicting toxins and pathogens. Platelets help to clot blood so that you wont have excessive blood sacking and stop bleeding (cliffsnotes. 2013).Respiratory system function is so you can breathe and supply oxygen to your whole body (how stop works. 2014). This works by breathing inhaling oxygen filled air and exhaling ascorbic acid dioxide air. First you breathe in air through your nose and mouth and it travels down the windpipe and through the bronchial tubes then into the lungs. The diaphragm and abdominal muscles and make the lungs contract and expand so that you are able to breathe in and out. The bronchial tubes connect to blood vessels which carry blood through your body and step in gases.The digestive system absorbs and moves the nutrients around the body that it needs to work well and gets rid of what the body doesnt n eed as waste. First there is ingestion which is when eaten and then makes its way down into the stomach to be stored and waits for digestion. It then moves into the small intestines where the enzymes and bile work to break down the food where the body can absorb more nutrients that it needs and it continues on its way to the large intestine where it absorbs more fluid to make the solid faeces and moves through and gets excreted as waste (how stuff works. 2014). The liver aids in breaking up fats, absorbing them and digesting them.Urinary system works a great with other parts of the body such as skin, lung and intestines to keep up the stability of chemicals and water in the body (live science. 2013).This systems role is to filter and excrete. Kidneys work at reducing blood pressure by reducing the blood volume. The body filters blood to create urine which goes into the bladder and the bladder fills up until it is full and ready to excrete waste that the body does not need which is urination (live science. 2013).3. Define the signs and symptoms of heart failure, and explain why these signs and symptoms occur.Breathlessness or shortness of breath is a symptom because when the heart starts failing, the blood in the veins gets backed up in the pulmonary veins because it cannot cope with the supply while trying to carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. At this point, the fluid is starting to pool in the lungs which hinders regular breathing. A person suffering heart failure may suffer with breathlessness upon exertion including exercise or other activities. As the condition progresses, breathlessness or shortness of breath may even be present while at rest or even dormancy which may cause the person to wake up (USCF medical center. 2014). Fatigue occurs when heart failure develops and worsens the heart cannot pump the adequate volume of blood that is undeniable to meet all of the bodys needs. To make up for this, the blood is taken away from less vit al such as the limbs to supply the heart and brainpower. Because of this, people suffering with heart failure usually feel tired, weak and have difficulty doing normal tasks such as walking, going up stairs, or even carrying items. (USCFmedicalcenter.2014). Someone suffering shortness of breath as a symptom of heart failure will also experience fatigue if they are being woken up with breathing difficulties while they are sleeping. Chronic coughing and wheezing is a symptom because of the fluid backup in the lungs which may cause a thick, whitish mucus like substance called phlegm to be coughed up from the lungs which may even be tinged pink from traces of blood (USCFmedicalcenter.2014). Rapid or irregular heartbeat is a symptom because it may speed up to make up for its inability to pump blood around the body properly. bulk suffering this in heart failure may experience a fluttering sensation of heart palpitations, or a heartbeat that they are witting of and seems irregular or ou t of the normal rhythm. It may feel like the heart is racing or pounding hard (USCF medical center. 2014). Lack of relish/ nausea because the digestive system isnt as vital as the heart or brain so the blood has been pulled away from the digestive systems to these areas instead which means there will be problems with digestion including the feeling of fullness or sickness even though they have not eaten anything (USCF medical center. 2014). Confusion/ impaired thinking because unusual sodium levels in the blood and lessened blood flow to the brain can cause bafflement or memory loss even know the person suffering with this may not even realise, and someone else may pick up on this sign before they do (USCF medical center. 2014).Oedema or swelling due to restricted blood flow to the kidneys which means that they produce hormones which lead to the retention of salt and water. This causes swelling of (most often) in the legs, ankles, and feet. Oedema may also cause weight gain (USCF m edical center. 2014).Rapid weight gain can occur as a result of oedema and the fluid retention (USCF medical center. 2014). Heart grows in size because it wants to make its pumping power greater so the muscle mass in the heart gets bigger to make this happen. The chambers inside of the heart also grow larger and stretch so that they can fit more blood in. magic spell the heart grows in size, the cells that control its contractions also grow with it. An enlarged heart does not function as well as a normal size one and the added muscle mass puts stress on the whole cardiovascular system (USCF medical center. 2014). The heart pumps faster as it tries to circulate more blood around the body. If the heart pumps blood too fast for a long period of time, it can damage the heart muscle and hinder its regular galvanizing signals, which can cause an unsafe heart rhythm disorder (USCF medical center. 2014). Blood vessels narrow because less blood is flowing through the veins and arteries and that means blood pressure can drop to seriously low levels. Because of this, the blood vessels narrow which keeps the blood pressure higher while the hearts power decreases. Narrowing of the blood vessels also limits the amount of blood that can flow through which may contribute to other conditions such as heart disease, clogged or jam vessels in the legs or other body parts, or stroke (USCF medical center. 2014). Blood flow is diverted away from less vital areas such as the limbs when there is not enough of it to meet the bodys needs and gets given to more crucial organs such as the heart and brain which are the most important for survival. This can cause limb weakness due to lack of blood in the areas. The areas where the blood is diverted from may discharge over time from a lack of oxygen (USCF medical center. 2014). Increased urination at night because if the patient suffering heart failure lays down all day, the fluid that has been accumulating in their legs all day may move back up into the blood stream and gets taken to the kidneys and is excreted as urine (heart failure matters. 2014). Low blood pressure because the hearts power has decreased and the veins have narrowed. Chest pain if your heart failure is due to a heart attack. att send away the information taken on his admission that demonstrates these signs and symptoms.CyanoticAppetite lossConfusion and anxietyLow blood pressureTemperature below 35.8 degreesSa02 87% on airRespirations 32Low blood pressureConstipationDo you think his diabetes is related to his leg ulcer and amputated left toe? Explain.Yes. High blood sweeten levels in diabetic patients damage nerves and blood vessels which results in poor circulation to the feet and may cause ulcers, transmittance, and amputation. This is more likely to happen if the patient has had diabetes for a long amount of time, they smoke, they dont move around much, or their blood glucose levels have been high for an extended period of time (diabetes Au stralia. 2014).One of the medications he is pickings is Lasix. What is the action of Lasix? Which body systems are affected by it? Explain why you think Mr Wright is ordered Lasix.Lasix is a diuretic. It increases the amount of urine that is made in the kidneys and excreted as waste (c health. 2014). It is also used to regulate and control slight to moderate high blood pressure. It affects the urinary system because it involves the kidneys and the cardiovascular system because it involves the heart.I think that Mr. Wright is ordered Lasix to get rid of the excess fluid that would be built up in his body and to lessen the oedema. total three conditions in Mr Wrights relevant medical history that are commonly associated with ageing.GlaucomaType 2 diabetesArthritisUsing Mr Wrights admission history and assessment, list the factors that may impact on his safety whilst in hospital and when he returns home.Hypotensive- low blood pressureHe needs a walking stick because he is unsteady on h is feetHe gets anxious, especially about his dog. This can sometimes cause an asthma attack.He gets confusedHis vision is impaired and gets blurry after he has eye drops and he also needs reading glasses.What other health professionals will be involved in his care and what services can they provide for Mr Wright.Paramedics will care for Mr Wright in the ambulance and pass him over to emergency.Mr Wright needs a doctor to in emergency to diagnose him. General Nurses will be involved to provide care for him and to care for his wounds.A diabetes educator can be involved to help him to understand the needs of his condition and set up an action plan and give him support. A dietician can also help with this condition and set up meal and nutrition plans etc. good example physiologist assists patients to have a physical lifestyle to prevent and manage chronic conditions.A pharmacist will dispense his prescriptions so he can have medications and to give information on them.He may be able to talk to a psychologist to improve his anxieties, especially about his dog (better health. 2013).List the treat documentation you would expect to be used in the care of Mr Wright.Progress notes Medication chart Vital signs chart Nursing history and assessment mission plan Asthma action plan FBC- fluid balance chart Wound monitoring chart Falls risk assessment(tafesa. 2014)UCSF medical center. 2014. heart failure signs and symptoms. ONLINE visible(prenominal) at http//www.ucsfhealth.org/conditions/heart_failure/signs_and_symptoms.html. Accessed 04 April 14.heart failure matters. 2014. need to urinate at night. ONLINE lendable at http//www.heartfailurematters.org/en_GB/Understanding-heart-failure/Need-to-urinate-at-night. Accessed 08 April 14.better health channel. 2013. congestive heart failure. ONLINE visible(prenominal) at http//www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Congestive_heart_failure_%28CHF%29. Accessed 08 April 14.American heart association. 2012. type s of heart failure. ONLINE Available at http//www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/HeartFailure/AboutHeartFailure/Types-of-Heart-Failure_UCM_306323_Article.jsp. Accessed 08 April 14.c health. 2014. drug factsheets. ONLINE Available at http//chealth.canoe.ca/drug_info_details.asp?brand_name_id=210Indication. Accessed 09 April 14.providence healthcare network. 2014. congestive heart failure. ONLINE Available at http//providence.net/facilities/heart-failure.html. Accessed 09 April 14.pt direct. 2014. major functions of the cardiovascular system. ONLINE Available at http//www.ptdirect.com/training-design/anatomy-and-physiology/cardiovascular-system/major-functions-of-the-cardiovascular-system-2013-a-closer-look. Accessed 09 April 14.diabetes australia. 2014. diabetes and your feet. ONLINE Available at https//www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/Living-with-Diabetes/MindBody/DiabetesYour-Feet/. Accessed 09 April 14.TafeSA, 2014. Acute Care Flow Charts. In Flow Charts. s.l.Government of sulfur Aust ralia.better health . 2013. allied health. ONLINE Available at http//www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Allied_health. Accessed 10 April 14.cliffs notes. 2013. functions of the cardiovascular system. ONLINE Available at http//www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/anatomy-and-physiology/the-cardiovascular-system/functions-of-the-cardiovascular-system. Accessed 10 April 14.how stuff works. 2014. what is the function of the respiratory system?. ONLINE Available at http//health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/respiratory/function-respiratory-system.htm. Accessed 10 April 14.how stuff works. 2014. how the digestive system works. ONLINE Available at http//health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/digestive/digestive-system2.htm. Accessed 10 April 14.live science. 2013. urinary system. ONLINE Available at http//www.livescience.com/27012-urinary-system.html. Accessed 10 April 14.Chikungunya Fever A Review Of The LiteratureChikungunya Fever A Review Of The LiteratureThe Ne wala and Masasi Districts of the Southern Province, Tanzania, describe its first dengue fever-like blast in 1952-1953, on the tooshie that this pestiferous involved debilitating joint pains and shorter incubation period, thereby excluding dengue (Robinson 1955). The infection was called chikungunya a word from the Makonde dialect describing patients contorted posture (Lumsden 1955). Chikungunya is an arthropod borne computer virus (arbovirus) of the genus Alphavirus from Togaviridae family. It is transmitted to humans importantly by the day biting mosquito species genus genus Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Townson and Nathan 2008). Moreover, Aedes aegypti eggs collected from the Tanzanian outbreak were used for the first isolation of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) (Ross 1956). CHIKV contains a positive-sense single stranded RNA genome, enclosed in an icosahedral nucleocapsid, all enclosed in a phospholipid bilayer envelope. Embedded in the envelope are multiple copies of two e ncoded glycoproteins E1 and E2, a small glycoprotein E3, and a hydrophobic peptide 6K (Strauss and Strauss 1994). However, the roles of these glycoproteins are not elucidated, but it can be assumed that it could alleviate the attachment of the virus to host cell.HistorySubsequent to the Tanzanian epidemic, several outbreaks have been reported worldwide, including the Indian naval Islands La Reunion (Renault et al. 2007), Mayotte (Sissoko et al. 2008), and the Maldives (Yoosuf et al. 2008). There were outbreaks whereby Chikungunya had continuative with other infections with dandy fever (Ratsitorahina et al. 2008, Yoosuf et al. 2008) and with malaria parasite falciparum infection (Pastorino et al. 2004). Moreover, Chikungunya have been trade into several European countries United Kingdom (HPA 2007), France (Hochedez et al. 2007), Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Poland (Panning et al. 2008), with Italy witnessing its first CHIKV outbreak in 2007 (Rezza et al. 2007).Aim of reviewThe Italian outbreak has demonstrated that only one viraemic person was required to instigate an outbreak and due to increased population movement worldwide, CHIKV could extend to epidemic proportions (Rezza et al. 2007). Furthermore, the outbreaks could have been underestimated due to its concurrence with other infections. Thus, this literature review will demonstrate to the reader that the Western medicine should be planning for CHIKV outbreaks which are befitting increasingly possible due to world climate change.Clinical FeaturesChikungunya is a mild and self limiting infection (Rezza et al. 2007) with incubation period of 2-7 days (Robinson 1955). Patients usually presents with a modus operandi of clinical features, with fever, fatigue, joint pain, anorexia, and nausea presenting as common clinical features ( dining table 1). Arthalgia and myalgia mainly involves the extremities of wrists, ankles, hands, feet and phalanges, while skin rash and petechiae are manifestations of bl eeding (Kannan et al. 2009). During the La Reunion outbreak, Graldin et al. (2008) observed vertical transmissions from mother to child, with newborns presenting with chikungunya infection without prior mosquito bites. These neonates became symptomatic between 3-7 days postpartum, with presentation of fever, pain, poor feeding, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) with gastrointestinal and cerebral bleeding, petechiae, and distal joint oedema. Encephalitis, thrombocytopenia and haemorrhagic fever were presented as dangerous neonatal infections however, no fatalities were reported (Grardin et al. 2008).Transmission of CHIKVCHIKV requires two types of hosts to complete its restoration cycle. Firstly, Aedes mosquito species transmits the virus to animals, and act as definitive hosts. Secondly, humans and other animals become give with the virus and act as intermediate hosts. The transmission between the natural hosts (primates, birds, rodents and others) and the definitive h osts involves the sylvatic (main) cycle (Pardigon 2009). By disrupting this cycle, humans became incidental hosts, resulting in urban transmission cycles yielding epidemics. These humans could transmit CHIKV promptly to domestic mosquitoes (Gould and Higgs 2009) and indirectly to domestic animals such as fowl, pigeons and goats (Lumsden 1955). When an Aedes mosquito ingests viraemic blood meal, CHIKV replicates in the salivary glands and ovaries, sites where it can be excreted. Upon another blood meal, the mosquito injects the viraemic saliva into a susceptible host. Contrary, in spite of appearance the ovaries, CHIKV is transmitted to the mosquitoes eggs by vertical transmissions ( radiation pattern 1). The desiccated nature of these eggs enables it to survive longer periods in the environment, where they are hatched during the rainy season (Gould and Higgs 2009).Figure 1. The overview of CHIKVs transmissions cycle in mosquito and human (Evenor 2010).Aedes mosquito becomes infect ed after taking a blood meal from an infected intermediate hostUpon another blood meal, the Aedes mosquito injects viraemic saliva into a susceptible hostThe viraemic blood travels to the gut, where CHIKV undergoes replication within the gut wallThe egg later positive into a mosquito infected with CHIKVCHIKV travels to the ovaries, where it is transmitted to the mosquitos eggs by vertical transmissionThe intermediate host becomes viraemic with presentation of clinical featuresCHIKV penetrated the gut wall, where it is disseminated through the bloodstreamCHIKV travels to the salivary glands, where it undergoes replication distributions of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegyptiAedes aegypti was the predominant vector during earlier outbreaks in Africa (Lumsden 1955), and it has been implicated in some recent outbreaks in Africa (Gould et al. 2008) and Indonesia (Laras et al. 2005). However, Aedes albopictus have been described as the main vector implicated in a number of recent outbreaks , between 2005 to 2007 (Leroy et al. 2009, Pags et al. 2009, Ratsitorahina et al. 2008, Renault et al. 2007, Sissoko et al. 2008). In the Gabonese outbreak involving both vectors, Vazeille et al. (2008) hypothesised that Aedes albopictus is a more suitable vector for CHIKV than Aedes aegypti, as it has a higher susceptibility for the virus. The two vectors have been recovered from several conduct sites with some product (Table 2). Tyres have been the main source of Aedes albopictus larval importation into Italy, in 1992, from Atlanta, USA. Consequently, the trade of these used tyres within Italy had caused large infestations of Aedes albopictus in Linguria, Veneto, Lombardy and Eimlia-Romagna regions, by the end of 1995 (Knudsen et al. 1996). Aedes aegypti larvae predominate inside home, whereas Aedes albopictus larvae predominate outside home (Preechaporn et al. 2006).Table 2. The natural and semisynthetic breeding sites for Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus larvae.Natural and artificial breeding sitesIncidence of Aedes aegyptilarvaeIncidence of Aedes albopictus larvaeReferencesBarrelsXGould et al.2008DrumsXXGould et al.2008, Ratsitorahina et al.2008BucketsXRatsitorahina et al.2008Flower potsXGould et al.2008Discarded cansXXPreechaporn et al.2006, Ratsitorahina et al.2008Coconut shellsXPreechaporn et al.2006, Ratsitorahina et al.2008Clay water jarsXGould et al.2008Mango tree holesXLumsden 1955WetlandsXXVazeille et al.2008Discarded tyresXXPreechaporn et al.2006, Ratsitorahina et al.2008Plant potsXXPreechaporn et al.2006, Ratsitorahina et al.2008GardensXAdhami and Reiter 1998Discarded plastic bottlesXAdhami and Reiter 1998, Preechaporn et al.2006Wet containersXRatsitorahina et al.2008Banana treesXPreechaporn et al.2006Plant axilsXPreechaporn et al.2006Animal pansXXPreechaporn et al.2006 fictile containersXXPreechaporn et al.2006Cement tanksXXPreechaporn et al.2006Ant guardsXPreechaporn et al.2006Preserved areca jarsXPreechaporn et al.2006Small and large ear then jarsXXPreechaporn et al.2006 pigment (X)- present, (-)- absent.Effect of climate changeOutbreaks have been associated with climatic conditions such as temperatures and high rain. Temperatures influence the developmental rate of Aedes albopictus larvae to adult mosquitoes, with the rate optimising at temperatures between 25 to 30oC (Straetemans 2008). Thus, Tilson et al. (2009) argued that mean monthly temperatures above 20oC are required to initiate an outbreak, as illustrated by the Italian outbreak that was initiated in June and subsided in phratry when the monthly average temperatures were 22oC and fell below 20oC. Mean annual peltings over 500mm is required (Straetemans 2008) to provide suitable breeding environment for the mosquitoes to expand their population (Lumsden 1955) as a result, most outbreaks have been associated with high rainfall (Lumsden 1955, Pastorino et al. 2004, Renault et al. 2007, Sissoko et al. 2008, Yoosuf et al. 2009) as illustrated in Table 3. In 2 009, the UK Met office (2010) recorded a mean annual rainfall and temperature of 1201.3mm and 9.2oC, respectively. The rainfall is sufficient to initiate an outbreak however, the low temperature is poor to support the mosquitoes life cycle. Therefore, the question is what would the impact be to the UK if the climatic condition changes to favour this mosquito?Table 3. Mean temperature and the amount of rainfall that were reported during several outbreaks.CountryDuration of the outbreakMean monthly Temperature (oC)Months mean monthly temperature were collectedAmount of rainfall(mm)Months high rainfall were recordedReferenceTanzania1952 195321.8 28.5Jun Nov1203Jan Dec 1952Lumsden 1955BogorAug Dec 200124 26.2Jan 2000 Dec 2001NALaras et al.2005BekasiJan 200226.2 29.6Jan 2001 Dec 20021931Jan Feb 2002Laras et al.2005Maldives2006 2007NANA970Nov Dec 2006Yoosuf et al.2009Key NA- not availableDistribution of Chikungunya outbreakMayotte (French Overseas Territory), an island of th e Comoros archipelago, encountered its first CHIKV outbreak imported from Grand-Comore in mid-April 2005 (Renault et al. 2007), with 6346 reported cases (in two waves), observed by the surveillance system apply throughout the island by the local French Health Authority, Dass (Direction des affaires sanitaires et socials) Mayotte. The first (minor) wave commenced in April 2005, it later peaked in week 18 and the infection rate diminished in June, with the virus maintaining low levels thereafter, during the temperate and dry season. However, the second (major) wave began during the first week of May 2006, peaked during the hottest and rainiest months around treat/April 2006 and reduced to control levels by July 2006 (Sissoko et al. 2008).In March 2005, a chikungunya infection which started in Grande-Comorre was imported into La Reunion (French Overseas Territory), becoming its first severe reported case involving two waves of outbreak, as observed by the epidemiological surveillance system implemented by the islands local Health Authorities (Renault et al. 2007). Firstly, a (minor) wave commenced in March 2005, peaked in May 2005 and decreased at the beginning of July to approximately 100 cases where the level was maintained during the austral winter. By December 2005 the second (major) wave began however, the capacity of the surveillance system at the time was insufficient to evaluate the number of cases, as the number of cases was increasing exponentially. This resulted in an underestimation of the number of reported cases with possible misdiagnosis with Dengue fever which circulated the island the previous year (Renault et al. 2007). By April 2006, the Regional Health and Welfare Office reported 203 deaths that were directly (due to low immune status) or indirectly (in associations with other underlying conditions) attributed with chikungunya infection, with a low mortality rate of 0.3/1000 people (Renault et al. 2007).The Maldives encountered its first CHI KV outbreak involving 11879 support and suspected cases on 121 of the 197 inhabited islands, observed by the surveillance system implemented by the Epidemiology Unit of the Department of Public Health (DPH), from December 2006 to April 2007 (Yoosuf et al. 2008). The outbreak commenced at the beginning of December 2006, peaked in week 6 and subsided to control levels by week 11 before halting in April 2007. The epidemic was thought to be associated with post-tsunami construction activities which provided breeding sites for mosquitoes. Moreover, approximately five to six elderly patients died as result of co-morbidity and other conditions (Yoosuf et al. 2008).Figure 2 Global Distribution of chikungunya virus, 1952 to 2009. The cases represented on the map are either sustain cases or suspected cases (Evenor 2010).References 1 Krastinova et al. 2006, 2 Rezza et al. 2007, 3 Pastorino et al. 2004, 4 Sissoko et al. 2008, 5 Lumsden 1955, 6 Tamburro and Depertat 2009, 7 CDC 2009, 8 WHO 200 8, 9 Yoosuf et al. 2009, 10 Leroy et al. 2009.Importation into EuropeEnglandIn 2006, the United Kingdoms (UK) Health Protection Agencys (HPA) Special Pathogens Reference Unit (SPRU) reported 133 imported cases of chikungunya (Table 4). The majority of these tourists had travelled to the Indian Ocean islands (68), between March and August 2006, where outbreaks were circulating, with Mauritius being the main destination site involving 58 imported cases, followed by 6 in the Seychelles, and 4 in Madagascar. However, when the outbreaks were in decline, only one case was detected in December (HPA 2007). Between August and December, 44 cases were imported from India and 10 cases were imported from Sri Lanka, between November and December countries with reported recent chikungunya outbreaks. Also imported into the UK, where one case from Nigeria, one from Tanzania, one case from Kenya, and one case from Australia. There had been no mention of chikungunya outbreak in these countries. Howev er, the article did not state whether there had been reported sightings of Aedes mosquitoes in UK (HPA 2007).Table 4. The number of cases was identified by variant methods from the 133 imported cases, in the UK.Identification of the imported cases numeral of casesLaboratory confirmed case45Probable case30Suspected case35Past exposure23FranceThe Piti-Salptrire Hospital in Paris, France, reported 80 cases of Chikungunya infection imported by tourists who recently visited the Southwest Indian Ocean region, between March 2005 and August 2006. The majority of cases (52) were imported from La Reunion (Hochedez et al. 2007), a popular destination site for French tourists (HPA 2006). Other destination sites reported were Mauritius with 18, Comoros with 4, Madagascar with 3, and Mayotte with 2 cases (Hochedez et al. 2007). Within the same period, Metropolitan France reported 766 imported cases, which correlated with the two waves of the La Reunion outbreak (Figure 3). At the peak of the fir st La Reunion outbreak, an average of 20 cases was imported to France monthly. However, between August and November 2005, during the Southern Hemisphere winter, the cases decreased (Krastinova et al. 2006). A month after the peak of the second outbreak, the number of imported cases drastically increased. It can be argued that France is at risk of future outbreaks, in view that some of its inhabitants are constantly visit the Southwest Indian Ocean regions (Hochedez et al. 2007), mainly La Reunion and also due to the inhabitation of Aedes albopictus (Krastinova et al. 2006).Figure 3 Correlation between imported cases of Chikunugunya in metropolitan France to the estimated number of cases in the La Reunion outbreak (Krastinova et al. 2006).ItalyChikungunya was apparently imported into Italy by a male tourist coming from the Kerala province in India, who developed febrile illness two days into his vacation. The region he visited was Castiglonia di Cervia in June 2007. This was recorded by Ravenna provinces local health unit in the Emilia Romagna region, northeastern Italy where 205 people developed CHIKV infection (Rezza et al. 2007). The vector, Aedes albopictus, was implicated in the spread of the virus which was then imported from Castiglione di Cervia into Castiglione de Revenna two villages separated by a river. Mosquito control measures implemented in the area resulted in a reduction in chikungunya infection. However, the control measure was not implemented in other villages and therefore a new wave occurred. The virus isolated from the outbreak contained the same mutational change (Ala226Val) in the membrane fusion E1 glycoprotein as the Indian Ocean variant, thereby suggesting that the Kerala strain could have originated from the Indian Ocean outbreak (Rezza et al. 2007).Other European CountriesTourism has been one of the main methods of CHIKV distributions worldwide, including its importation into several European countries. In 2006, the Bernhard-Nocht convey for Tropical Medicine in Hamburg, Germany examined 720 samples from 680 European patients who became symptomatic upon return to Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, and Poland from several destinations (Table 2) (Panning et al. 2008). The majority of patients had recently visited countries in the Indian Oceans Mauritius, the Seychelles, La Reunion and Madagascar, and other countries Bali, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Kenya and Thailand. Moreover, most of these countries have been implicated in recent CHIKV outbreaks. No outbreaks were reported in these European countries however, future outbreaks can be hypothesised (Panning et al. 2008).Table 5. The country of origin and the holiday destinations of patients presented at the Bernhard-Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine in Hamburg, Germany. Exact destinations were only available for 27.8% of patients, and exact itinerary were not available (Panning et al. 2008).Country of originNumber of patientsGermany515Belgi um99Switzerland42Denmark22Poland2Total Nos. of patients680Holiday Destinations (Regions with Chikungunya Epidemic)Number of patientsMauritius92The Seychelles23La Reunion18Madagascar9Bali2Indonesia6Sri Lanka5India28Malaysia2Kenya1Thailand3Concurrence with Dengue Fever and MalariaIn 2006 and 2007, Madagascar and Gabon reported co-infections between Chikungunya and DENV-1 or DENV-2 respectively (Ratsitorahina et al. 2008, Leroy et al. 2009). Contrary to CHIKV, dengue virus (DENV) is of Flavirivirus genus from Flaviridae family consisting of four antigenically distinct but closely related serotypes (DENV1-4). It is transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, also CHIKV transmission vectors (Cook and Zumla 2009). DENV and CHIKV have similar clinical features (Yoosuf et al. 2008). However, the only difference is that CHIKV has arthalgia (). The extended incubation period of DENV (5-8 days) differentiated it from CHIKV (2-7 days) however, the difference is insignificant (Cook and Zu mla 2009). Thus, serological diagnosis can be used to differentiate DENV to CHIKV (Ratsitorahina et al. 2008). Ratsitorahina et al. (2008) and Leroy et al. (2009) confirmed Aedes albopictus as the predominating transmission vector of both CHIKV and DENV1 or 2. However, neither study stated whether the vector could simultaneously harbour both viruses. Moreover, the study by Vazeille et al. (2008) demonstrated that Aedes aegypti has a higher susceptibility to DENV-2 virus and a lower susceptibility to CHIKV whereas Aedes albopictus is a more efficient vector for CHIKV than DENV-2 (Vazeille et al. 2008 and Moutailler et al. 2009). Leroy et al. (2009) further demonstrated this theory in the Gabon outbreak, as the majority of the patients had CHIKV compared to DENV-2.In May 1999 and February 2000, the Matete and Kingabwa quarters of Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) reported two Chikungunya outbreaks. CHIKV was the main contributing factor in the first outbreak however, during the second outbreak, evidence confirmed possibility of co-infections between CHIKV and Plasmodium falciparum (Pastorino et al. 2004). Malaria is a parasitic infection, of the Apicomlexa phylum, that mainly infects hosts red blood cells. It is transmitted by Anopheles species, whereas CHIKV is mainly transmitted by Aedes species. Plasmodium falciparum is one of the four species of Human Malaria (including Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, and Plasmodium ovale). However, Plasmodium falciparum is the most severe form of Malaria (Cook and Zumla 2009). Pastorino et al. (2004) hypothesised that co-infections could be due to long term latency of Plasmodium falciparum, the presence of both transmission vectors in the area or the pathogens sharing the same vectors. An experimental investigation by Yadav et al. (2003 as cited by Pastorino et al. 2004) demonstrated that urban Anopheles stephensi (Plasmodium falciparum vector) could transmit CHIKV.Lack of ResearchWe are still in the preliminary stages of understanding the interaction between CHIKV and host immunity (Kam et al. 2009), despite increasing number of reported outbreaks, there are insufficient evidences of up-to-date quality research (Panning et al. 2008). Therefore, outbreaks should be utilised to implement entomological and epidemiological system in improving our poor knowledge of the virus (Pialoux et al. 2007). Chretien and Linthicum (2007) argued that the Italian outbreak should provide opportunities for developed countries to strengthen the public-health system of developing countries in order to reduce the worldwide spread of outbreaks. These can be done by implementing Entomological and Virological surveillance in Aedes albopictus infested areas (Charell et al. 2008). Renault et al. (2007) utilised Deltamethrin insecticides to eradicate adult mosquitoes, whereas Rezza et al. (2007) utilised synergised pyrethrins. Furthermore, both authors utilised the biological larvicide, Bacillus thuringie nsis israelensis, to destroy breeding sites (Renault et al. 2007, Rezza et al. 2007) however, Renault et al. (2007) later utilised Fenitrothion and temephos. Other control measures include educating the community on personal protection (Ratsitorahina et al. 2008). Although, no commercial vaccine has been approved, several candidates have been time-tested including the Formalin inactivated CHIKV vaccine for the Indian strain, DRDE-06, ECSA genotype (Tiwari et al. 2009). Therefore, the author believes that future outbreaks can be avoided if more research on CHIKV is undertaken, and a worldwide surveillance system is implemented.ConclusionThis review has demonstrated that tourism is one of the main methods of CHIKV distributions worldwide, as it was the reason of several outbreaks. CHIKV was transported throughout the Southwestern Indian Ocean islands by viraemic tourists visiting different islands (Figure 2) and Kerala, India, which was then imported into Italy (Renault et al. 2007, Rezza et al. 2007, Sissoko et al. 2008, Yoosuf et al. 2008). However, outbreaks require temperatures above 20oC and annual rainfall over 500mm to maintain Aedes mosquitoes populations (Straetemans 2008, Tilson et al. 2009). Therefore, England is one of the least at risk country, as Aedes albopictus is not present, and the temperature is unfavourable to maintain mosquitoes life cycle (HPA 2007, Met Office 2010). Countries such as France and Italy are at high risk, due to the presence of Aedes albopictus and the introduction of CHIKV although, Italy is the most at risk due to a recent outbreak (Krastinova et al. 2006, Rezza et al. 2007). The eminent climatic changes could result in rising temperatures and increased rainfall that would favour the establishment of Aedes albopictus worldwide. All these emphasises the need for Western medicine to plan for future CHIKV outbreaks, by implementing a worldwide surveillance system in order to monitor outbreaks and to perform vector control mea sures (Charell et al. 2008). Chikungunya have concurrence with Malaria and Dengue Fever (Leroy et al. 2009, Ratsitorahina et al. 2008) furthermore, evidence suggests wrong classification of Chikungunya due to its resemblance to Dengue fever. CHIKV is constantly mutating, thus constant development of a new vaccine is required (Tiwari et al. 2009). Thereby, further researches are needed.